In the early 2000s, the 500,000 smallholder farmers who collectively produced more than three-quarters of Colombia’s coffee gave little thought to the impact of their activities on the environment, as they struggled to earn a living. Many carelessly used dangerous chemicals and dumped contaminated water into rivers. Aiming to protect biodiversity in coffee-growing regions of Latin America, the Global Environment Facility, an intergovernmental environmental fund, granted US$12 million to a United Nations Development Programme project led by the Rainforest Alliance, a New York–based nongovernmental organization (NGO), to help farmers in Colombia and five other Latin American countries meet a certification standard designed to enforce good agricultural practices and protect the environment. Crucially, the funding also enabled the Rainforest Alliance to cultivate a global market for sustainably produced coffee by promoting the product to companies and consumers. By 2017, about 10,000 Colombian farms covering about 70,000 hectares had earned Rainforest Alliance certification, and about 5% of coffee production globally was Rainforest Alliance certified. Other NGOs and coffee companies had developed similar but less-demanding systems, and collectively, they covered more than one third of Colombia’s coffee production. By comparison to other countries that produced agricultural commodities, that rate of participation was high, and the inclusion of smallholders, who were usually hard to organize, was distinctive. However, many farmers did not participate in the voluntary systems, and Colombia’s water and forest resources remained under threat in some areas.

Blair Cameron drafted this case study based on interviews conducted in Bogotá, Manizales, Bucaramanga, and San Gil, Colombia, in June 2017. The British Academy-Department for International Development Anti-Corruption Evidence (ACE) Program funded the development of this case study. Case published September 2017.

In 2007, multinational consumer goods company Unilever launched a partnership with the Kenya Tea Development Agency (KTDA) to help bring Kenya’s more than 500,000 small-scale tea farmers up to the certification standard set by the Sustainable Agriculture Network, a global coalition of environmental organizations. To participate, farmers had to fulfill dozens of criteria related to worker safety, environmental management, and agricultural practices. The KTDA, a private company that had been government run until 2000, was able to roll out certification quickly and on an unprecedented scale, thanks to its large market share, its rapport with farmers, the willingness of multinational companies to support high-quality sustainably grown tea, and funding by donor organizations. By mid 2016, all of Kenya’s smallholders had met certification standards, and Unilever’s flagship Lipton brand was selling 100%-certified tea. Soon after, other major global brands met the same target. Farmers pointed to increased yields, stronger health and safety procedures, and improved livelihoods as benefits of the certification initiative.

Blair Cameron drafted this case study based on interviews conducted in Kenya in January and February 2017. The British Academy-Department for International Development Anti-Corruption Evidence (ACE) Program funded the development of this case study. Case published May 2017.

In 2009, after environmental action group Greenpeace labeled cattle ranching in Brazil as the biggest cause of deforestation worldwide, the country’s giant beef industry got on the defensive. For many years, ranchers and land speculators had illegally cleared the Amazon rain forest and other important ecosystems to satisfy demand for beef. Amid calls for change, the Sustainable Agriculture Network, a global alliance of environmental organizations, created a certification system designed to encourage the adoption of sustainable ranching practices and foster a market for forest-friendly beef and leather products. After some early success—getting certified beef onto the shelves of a major supermarket chain—the initiative stalled. Few consumers and corporations cared about where the beef they bought came from, and ranchers were reluctant to change their ways in the absence of significant financial incentives. By late 2016, only a handful of ranchers, whose combined holdings represented a tiny fraction of 1% of Brazil’s pastureland, had received certification. However, the program succeeded in developing niche markets for certified beef, and proponents expressed hopes for more gains as consumers became more interested in the sustainability of food production.

Blair Cameron drafted this case study based on interviews conducted in São Paulo, in August and September 2016. The British Academy-Department for International Development Anti- Corruption Evidence (ACE) Progamme funded the development of this case study. Case published November 2016.